This
paper is a literature review of possible cognitive effects of Wi-Fi radiation.
It has been reported that Wi-Fi radiation, as a kind of radiofrequency
radiation at 2450 GHz, can cause both detrimental cognitive impacts if exposed
to the brain. However studies also showed that in some cases Wi-Fi exposure can
lead to beneficial outcomes. This paper analyzes current evidence from
literature and presents the relationship between Wi-Fi exposure and cognition
on both positive and negative impacts and provides information on how the
general population can lower their risk of developing potential negative health
outcomes of Wi-Fi radiation exposure.
Introduction
Wi-Fi is spreading rather fast around the
globe recently. Lots of museums, schools, libraries and homes are now equipped
with Wi-Fi device (Hlungulu et al., 2010).
According to Wi-Fi Alliance, Wi-Fi is in around 25% of homes around the world,
and about 2 billion Wi-Fi devices were sold in 2013 (Wi-Fi Alliance
?
,
2014). Recently some cities have developed or are developing plans to cover the
whole city with Wi-Fi spots (Afanasyev, Chen,
Voelker, Snoeren, 2008). In 2004, Jerusalem became the world』s
first city-wide Wi-Fi covered city.(Levi, 2004)
A few month later, Mysore became India』s first Wi-Fi covered city and then in
2005 Sunnyvale became the first Wi-Fi covered city in the United States (Khan, 2004; Vos, 2005). Since then a lot more
cities developed municipal Wi-Fi systems and currently more than 28 citywide
municipal Wi-Fi projects exist within the United States (Weiss, 2007). Wi-Fi is permeating into the society very rapidly
and is now a necessity of modern life.
Along with the increase
of Wi-Fi devices, concerns about the health impact of Wi-Fi radiation also arise.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has announced that there is no convincing
scientific evidence that radiofrequency signals from wireless networks cause
adverse health effects (WHO, 2006).
However, lots of epidemiological, in vitro, and in vivo research studies have
been conducted to explore the health impact of Wi-Fi radiation (Reviewed in
Foster, 2013). Current research shows that Wi-Fi exposure has influence on
reproductive health (Sommer et al., 2009),
cognitive abilities (Russell, 2013),
immune system (Shandala, 1983; G. I. B.
Vinogradov, G. V.; Naumenko, G. M.; Levin, A. D.;Trifonov, S. I., 1985; G. I.
D. Vinogradov, I. D., 1974), and many other aspects. This paper focuses
on reviewing the effect of Wi-Fi on cognition.
What is Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi,
wireless fidelity, also wifi or WiFi, is the name of a local wireless
information technology that enables electronic devices to connect to the
internet via 2.5 GHz electromagnetic wave. (Wi-Fi Alliance
?
,
2014) The name 『Wi-Fi』 is defined by
Wi-Fi Alliance as "wireless local area network (WLAN) products that are
based on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"
(IEEE) 802.11 standards" (Wi-Fi Alliance
?
, 2014).
All
Wi-Fi Alliance certified Wi-Fi equipments abide the IEEE (Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers) 802.11 standard and bear the official logo of Wi-Fi
Alliance shown in Figure 1.
Wi-Fi
signals, as radiofrequency radiation (RFR) at 2.4 GHz, defer from cell phone
GSM (originally Groupe Spécial Mobile, now Global System for Mobile
Communications) signals and other common cell phone communication signals in
its frequency, and the specified comparison is shown in Table 1.
Radiofrequency Radiation (RFR)
Radiofrequency
radiation (RFR) in total, is a part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum
with high frequency (3 kHz to 300 GHz) (D』Andrea, 2007). The energy
of RFR is not enough to cause ionization but RFR can affect cells physically
and chemically and can cause beneficial or harmful effects (Michaelson, 1987).
Radiofrequency
radiation as electromagnetic wave, has two major properties, frequency and
intensity. As mentioned before, the Wi-Fi radiation has frequency 2450 MHz. The
intensity of RFR is measured as power transferred per unit area and in SI (Le Système International d"Unités)
standard has the unit of W/m
2
. However considering radiation to
biological systems, Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) is often used to measure the
amount of radiation absorbed. (ICNIRP, 1998) The unit of SAR is W/kg. SAR is
usually averaged either over the whole body, or over a small sample volume (typically
1 g or 10 g of tissue) (Jin, 1998). SAR for RFR over a certain tissue
with known electromagnetic field can be calculated as:
Where is the electrical conductivity of the tissue,
E is is the root mean square electric field, and is the density of the tissue. SAR measures
exposure to fields between 100 kHz and 10 GHz (ICNIRP, 1998).
Wi-Fi Safety Dosage
Exposure
dosage is a crucial aspect of Wi-Fi radiation and other RF radiation. The SAR
mentioned before is often used to describe the dosage of exposure. Figure 2 shows the comparison of a few
radiofrequency radiation sources and their exposure dosages at a home.
The
data in Figure 2 indicate that the radiation of Wi-Fi is very low (smaller than
0.1%) of WHO guidelines for radiofrequency radiations, and is relatively low
compared to other RFR sources. The WHO guideline for RFR exposure measured in
SAR is 4 W/kg (WHO, 2006). Some other SAR
standards are also provided in the Table 2. However, this guideline only
considers the thermal effect of RFR and further influences are not considered
(Foster, 2013).
According to a
study in 2009, SAR of Wi-Fi devices radiation on human is around 0.05 to 0.17
W/kg (Monebhurrun and Letertre). This is quite low compared to standards made
by WHO and other organizations. However, the study only shows the average SAR
over a 10g sample tissue. It is possible that in a smaller sample, e.g. 1g, there
is a bigger SAR value. Also, the relationship between SAR over 10g sample
tissue and 1g sample tissue is not a simple linear relationship (Wang et al.,
2008). That means, it is not 10 times SAR of 10g tissue than 1g tissue.
However, the study only takes into account the effect Moreover, SAR is not the
only aspect of radiation. Duration of radiation is another important measure. Thereby,
the definition of a 「safe dosage」 is still under debate and needs further
investigation to clarify. Since some studies showed that there is long-term low
dosage effects of Wi-Fi exposure, there is great necessity to explore about the
possible health outcomes of Wi-Fi radiation
(Buchner, 2011).
Method
A
literature search in PubMed and Google Scholar used keywords Wi-Fi radiation
and cognition. References in the articles identified in the databases were also
evaluated for inclusion. The inclusion criteria were primary animal and human
studies of relationship between Wi-Fi and cognition. Articles were excluded if
they are 1) review, case report, or commentary; 2) studies on radiation
frequency 900 MHz instead of 2450 MHz; 3) studies that did not focus on
cognitive outcomes; and 4) non-English publication. Time of publication was not
limited in literature selection. A total of 11 animal studies and 3
epidemiology studies were selected.
Summary of
Research
Negative
Effects or No Effect on Cognition
Both
negative effects and neutral effects were discovered under different
situations. 2 animal studies found no effect on working memory while 3 animal studies
found negative effects. It is also found in one animal study that there is no
effect on anxiety and in another that there is no effect on stress. However
negative results were found in pubertal brain development, level of heat shock
protein, as well as structural changes in brain tissues. It is quite confusing
that different outcomes were observed under the same condition in Cobb et al.』s
study and in Lai et al.』s study, despite from the fact that both of the papers
utilized Male Sprague-Dawley (CD-VAF/Plus) rats (250–300g) in the same kind of
cages, at the same temperature (23℃), 12h light-dark cycle, with the
same exposure mechanism developed by Guy et al (1979). The reason that led to
the difference is thereby confounding. Cobb et al. stated that the level of
Physostigmine used in Lai et al.』s study, as well as the way Lai et al. trained
the rats might be the reason of negative impacts. However, no solid conclusion
can be achieved from the information given and further investigation is needed.
Noticeably, Lai et al. found that radiation time threshold is between 20 to 45
minutes for 0.6 W/kg (1989). This may be used to predict the threshold
radiation time with respect to SAR in human cases. In a later study, it is
found that under similar conditions and SAR 1.2 W/kg, the result of Water-Maze
running experiment for rats also showed negative impact on working memory (Wang
and Lai, 2000). Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that Wi-Fi radiation
causes working memory dysfunctions under certain conditions.
Also,
as previously mentioned, the WHO proposed SAR threshold for Wi-Fi radiation is
4W/kg. Studies have shown that Wi-Fi radiation with SAR varying from 0 to 4
W/kg does not have any impact on stress (A?t-A?ssa et al, 2010). However it has
also been reported that 1.04W/kg SAR may lead to brain structural changes in
the frontal cortex, brain stem and cerebellum, thereby impairing the oxidative
stress and inflammatory cytokine system (Eser et al, 2013). It was also
discovered in that study that the negative impact on rat』s brain formation of
2450 MHz Wi-Fi radiation is higher than that of 900MHz and 1800MHz radiation
(Eser et al, 2013). In epidemiological studies, both projects show negative
impact on psychophysiological outcomes such as EEG and HRV as well as IQ
(Maganioti et al, 2010; Havas et al, 2010). It was also discovered that the
level of heat shock protein HSP-90, often used as biomarkers of cell damage in
the neuro system due to its role as intracellular chaperones for other
proteins, becomes imbalanced when exposed to Wi-Fi radiation (Jorge-Mora et
al., 2010).
Therefore,
the following deductions are possible: 1) Wi-Fi radiation has impact on working
memory under certain conditions; 2) Wi-Fi radiation has no impact on stress
within the SAR standard of WHO; 3) Wi-Fi radiation leads to impairment of brain
structures and functions of key proteins; 4) Wi-Fi radiation leads to lower
psychophysiological outcomes and lower IQs.
Positive
Impact on Cognition
Besides the possible
negative impacts, very noticeably, research studies show that Wi-Fi radiation
has positive effects on cognitive functions. In 1992, researchers questioned
the common belief at that time that radiation is only detrimental to health
(Wolff). The possible mechanism of beneficial outcomes of ionizing radiation is
adaptive response, the phenomenon that low dose exposure to radiation or other
DNA altering substances can lead to lighter detrimental effects when exposed
later to a higher dose of that agent. This supports the 1984 discovery that
pre-exposure of human lymphocytes to low-dosage ionizing radiation induced an
adaptive response as decreased susceptibility to chromatid break induced by a
subsequent high dose radiation (Olivieri et al). This
is comparable to radiofrequency radiation, which is just lower in energy.
However the biological mechanism of how RFR causes adaptive is still unclear.
In 2014, Vijayalaxmi et al. reviewed about Adaptive response in mammalian cells
exposed to non-ionizing radiofrequency fields however all research cases
mentioned used 900 MHz (GSM) or 1950 MHz (UMTS) radiation. It is possible that
similar mechanism works for 2450 MHz Wi-Fi radiation. Supporting this, positive
cognitive effects of Wi-Fi radiation have been evidenced in animal research. It
has been reported that triple transgenic mice that has Alzheimer』s disease
properties achieve better in Barnes Maze Test after being exposed to Wi-Fi
radiation (2400MHz) for 2 hours per day and SAR 1.6 W/kg (Banaceur et al, 2013).
Besides Wi-Fi radiation, long-term low-dose exposure to 900 MHz and 1800 MHz RF
radiation is also reported to give rise to increase in resistance to ionizing
radiation and bacterial infection in in vitro human blood studies (Vijayalaxmi
et al, 2013 Sannino et al, 2013, Cao et al, 2011, Jiang et al, 2012, Zeni et
al, 2012). Therefore, 2450 MHz Wi-Fi radiation can be beneficial to cognition
and may be of great interest in treating Alzheimer』s disease.
From the research result now it is possible
that 2450 MHz Wi-Fi radiation can both have beneficial and harmful effects on
cognition. Therefore it is a tricky problem to minimize the negative effects
and optimize the positive effects of Wi-Fi radiation. Noticeably, it is
reported that workers at radar stations who are exposed to radar microwaves (2
to 18 GHz) have shorter reaction time compared to the control group (Mortazavi,
2013). However it is mentioned in the same paper that radar workers have lower
performance in short-term memory compared to control group. Similarly, the
potential to induct both beneficial and detrimental effects on cognition of
Wi-Fi radiation is of great interest for further studies.
Biological Mechanisms of Wi-Fi』s
Effects on Cognition
Different
biological mechanisms have been proposed to explain the cognitive effects of
Wi-Fi radiation. It is found that as a kind of non-ionizing electromagnetic
radiation, Wi-Fi may cause various changes in brain and related regions. One
possible mechanism involves Protein Kinase C (PKC). Studies have shown that PKC
plays vital roles in different phases of the expression of Long-Term
Potentiation (LTP), a well-characterized form of synaptic plasticity that
fulfils many of the criteria for a neural correlate of memory (Suzuki, 1994;
Cooke and Bliss, 2006). It has been shown that statistically significant
decrease in PKC activity in hippocampus due to chronic exposure to 2.45 GHz RFR
at specific absorption rate 0.11W/kg (Paulraj and Behari, 2006). This alters
the hippocampus function and thereby exerts an influence on cognition. Recent
study shows that decreased level of PKC activities in hippocampus associates
with impaired cognition (Yabuki et al, 2013). This is due to PKC』s regulation
of enzymes like ornithine decarboxylase can be altered due to exposure of
electromagnetic waves, thereby influencing cognition (Byus et al, 1988). It
seems that hippocampus is an important target for Wi-Fi radiation. Known as the
key place of memory, hippocampus involves different kinds of biochemical
processes that influences neurobehavioral and cognitive outcomes (Eichenbaum et
al., 1992). Therefore, alterations in structure of and key biological processes
in hippocampus cause cognitive dysfunctions. Accordingly, the alteration of PKC
level in hippocampus due to Wi-Fi radiation can cause negative impacts on
cognition.
Lai
et al. (1989) proposed a different mechanism which involves hippocampus. Increase
in concentration of cholinergic receptors occurred in frontal cortex and
hippocampus of rats after ten 45-min 2450 MHz radiation sessions (Lai et al.,
1989). However, despite from the fact that choline uptake receptors in
hippocampus, frontal cortex and other regions are closely related to cognitive
outcomes and interrupted cholinergic receptors concentrations cause negative
cognitive effects, the exact relationship between cholinergic receptors and
cognition is too complex and not yet well studied (Sarter and Parikh, 2005).
High-affinity choline uptake transporter is the rate-limiting transporter of
choline for synthesis of Acetylcholine neurotransmitter. This transporter is a
phosphoprotein, whose production regulation involves PKC, the key protein of
the previous mechanism (Sarter and Parikh, 2005). Moreover, it is discovered
that Wi-Fi radiation influences heart rate of experimental rats (Havas et al., 2010). This psychophysiological impact
might also shed light on the cognitive outcomes.
Conclusion and Implications
The cognitive impact of Wi-Fi radiation
can be beneficial or detrimental. However the border between positive and
negative cognitive effects stays unclear and many studies have found no clear
relationship between Wi-Fi radiation and cognition. On one hand, it is
discovered that 1) Wi-Fi radiation has impact on working memory under certain
conditions. 2) Wi-Fi radiation has no impact on stress within the SAR standard
of WHO. 3) Wi-Fi radiation leads to impairment of brain structures at SAR only
1 W/kg. 4) Wi-Fi radiation leads to lower psychophysiological outcomes and
lower IQs.
However, on the other hand, it is also
noticed that exposure to Wi-Fi radiation can be beneficial in some cases.
Therefore, special attention should be paid because it is possible that Wi-Fi
radiation can cause detrimental effects to cognition. More research should be
done to analyze and separate the relationship between factors that might
contribute to the beneficial as well as the detrimental effects. Work places,
schools and other public places should consider reducing the number of Wi-Fi
devices. Considering current epidemiology research results and the number of
people that work and live in Wi-Fi radiations, it is important to conduct more
epidemiological researches that can set up a clear model to estimate the risk
of cognitive effects due to exposure of Wi-Fi radiation. The potential risk and
benefits of Wi-Fi radiation should also be more propagated in the public.
Since Wi-Fi devices are already almost
irremovable from homes, working places and other possible occasions. It is
still necessary to think about how to reduce the possible negative effects of
Wi-Fi radiation to cognition and utilize the positive effects. Nevertheless, it
is safe to reduce the general influence of Wi-Fi radiation and keep away from
Wi-Fi devices. Since the two most important aspects of Wi-Fi radiation are
radiation strength (SAR) and radiation time, the best method to reduce
radiation is to directly reduce radiation exposure in time and strength.
Since
radiation intensity reduces with distance and keeping away from radiation
source can decrease the exposure, keeping a distance from Wi-Fi devices can
help reduce exposure. Due to the fact that long exposure time leads to higher
risk of negative effects of Wi-Fi radiation, it can be helpful to turn off
Wi-Fi devices when not using them. Ethernet is safer, needs less energy than
Wi-Fi. Increasing the use of Ethernet decreases exposure to Wi-Fi radiation.
Thereby it is suggested to use Ethernet whenever possible. Radiation in public
places may cause negative cognitive effects, especially to people with weaker
resistance. Reducing Wi-Fi hotspots in public places can help reduce health
risks in a larger population.
Besides, the cognitive effects of Wi-Fi
radiation should be compared and analyzed with respect to other similar
mechanisms of radiation, e.g. 1800MHZ GSM. Due to the fact that many offices
and companies have Wi-Fi radiation, it is quite important to investigate the
relationship between occupational exposure to Wi-Fi exposure and cognitive
effects.
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Figure 1. Official logo of Wi-Fi (Adapted from
Wi-Fi Alliance)
This category is used for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which there is limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and less than sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals.
